By

Victor E. Dike

There are variations in living standards around the globe, as economic growth rates and productivity vary from nation to nation. Some countries are poor, some are fairly well off, and others are rich, just as some individuals are poor, some are fairly well off, and others are considered rich. However, everything is relative; and that is certainly the case with poverty. For instance, although "millions of Americans can’t make a decent living" (Schwarz, October 1998), what most people in the United States today regard as "stark poverty…would seem like luxury in parts of Asia and Africa…" (Mansfield 1977). Similarly, a poor person in Nigeria might not be perceived as such by other Africans in dire economic needs. Thus, poverty is partly a matter of how one person’s income stacks up against the other person.

If you were to determine how a person is doing economically, you would first look at the person’s income. One with a high income could afford life’s necessities and luxuries; but "inadequate income is a strong predisposing condition for an impoverished life" (Sen 1999). And when judging whether the economy of a nation is doing well or poorly, it is common to compare the total income of everyone in the economy with another one or the global economy. The most common economic tool for this is the Gross National Product (GNP =the total income earned by a nation’s permanent residents [the nationalist] at a given period, Mankiw 2001, p.498). The average income of a citizen of any country is the GNP per capita, calculated by dividing the GNP with the population. Nevertheless, GNP differs from Gross Domestic Product (GDP =the market value of all final goods and services produced within a country in a given period of time, Ibid. p.496), by including income that a nation’s citizens earn abroad and excluding income that foreigners earn in the country. For instance, if a Ghanaian citizen works temporarily in Nigeria, his production is part of Nigeria’s GDP, but it is not part of the GNP (It is part of Ghana’s GNP.)

Given the indices currently used by international organizations, Nigeria’s current GNP per capita of about $260 is below that of less affluent countries such as Bangladesh with a per capita income of $370. Nigeria’s low per capita income compares with those of smaller African countries with less endowment in natural resources, such as Tanzania with a per capita income of $260 and Mozambique of about $220. African countries that enjoy impressive standard of living are South Africa with a per capita income of $3, 170, and Botswana with a per capita income of $3, 240 (The Commonwealth Yearbook, 2002; The Guardian Online, March 17, 2002). Nigeria’s poor per capita income becomes more frightening when compared with those of some western nations. For instance, the GNP per capita United States was about $27,086 in 1996 (USAID 2002); and recently that of Britain was put at $23, 590 (The Commonwealth Yearbook, 2002). This is not to mention the impressive economic performances of the four Asian Tigers of Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan and Hong Kong.

Thus, a nation’s standard of living is determined, among other things, by the economic condition of the nation and the productivity of her citizens (the quantity of the goods and services that a worker can produce for each hour of work (Mankiw 2001, p.533). A country may prosper if her citizens are productive and do not possess many anti-growth behaviors such as corruption and bad work ethic. The mention of work ethic takes us to the issue of "culture," which is a significant determinant of a nation’s ability to prosper, "shapes individuals’ thoughts about risk, reward and opportunity" (Lindsay 2000, p.282).

There are different views of what prosperity is and how to create it. Prosperity could be both a "flow" of income and a "stock" of capital. It is a "flow" of income, which is the ability of a person to purchase a set of goods, or capture value created by someone else; it is a "stock" of capital, which is the enabling environment that improves productivity (Fairbanks, 2000, p.270; Sen 1996). Prosperity, therefore, is the ability of an individual, group, or nation to provide shelter, nutrition, and other material goods that enable people to live a good life (Ray 1998, p. 9). Prosperity helps to create space in people’s hearts and minds so that they may develop a healthy emotional and spiritual life and become "unfettered by the everyday concern of the material goods they require to survive" (Fairbanks 2000). Therefore the life of any person burdened with the vices of poverty is miserable and short as he or she struggles daily for survival. This is, unfortunately, the case with many people in present-day Nigeria.

This article, therefore, stresses the need for the Nigerian leadership to provide the enabling environment that would attract and retain local and foreign investors and spur economic growth, which, ceteris paribus, would lead to more jobs, increase in goods and services, improvement in the health of citizens and the poverty-profile of Nigeria.

In spite of Nigeria’s oil wealth (the nation is the 6^th oil producing nation in the world), the poor constitute about 70% of the Nigerian population. And recent report by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) shows Nigeria as the 26^th poorest nation in the world (The Guardian, July 26, 2002; also see Dike, October 6, 2002). With the vast mineral, oil, water, land and human resources, many Nigerians live on less than $1.00 (one U.S. dollar) a day. Is this statistics not bad enough to wake the nations political leaders from slumber? Who are the poor in Nigeria?

Poverty has narrow and broad definitions, partly because it is a physical matter, and partly because poverty is relative. It is physical because one can note its effects on those afflicted by it. And it is relative because a poor person in one country may not be perceived as such in another country. However, the poor are those that ‘have limited and insufficient food, poor clothing [live in] crowded…and dirty shelter…’ (Galbraith 1955), cannot afford medical care and recreation; cannot meet family and community obligations and other necessities of life. And people are "poverty-stricken when their income, even if adequate for survival, falls markedly behind" the average obtainable in their immediate community (Galbraith 1955).

Poverty is a serious issue in Nigeria, because many people are struggling daily for survival without assistance from the State. Worse still, the nation does not have any guideline to measure the construct, which are available in some countries.

For instance, in the US the 1995 ‘official federal policy notion of poverty guidelines ‘carry precise dollar amounts’ of about $15,150 for a family of four. Poverty guidelines, which are issued by The Department of Health and Human Services, determine financial eligibility for federal programs and household incomes for basic necessities. And any family whose income is below the set amount is considered living below the poverty line (journalofpoverty.org). The poverty threshold, which is the statistical version of the poverty guidelines, is used by the ‘Census Bureau’ to calculate the number of persons in poverty in the United States, States or Regions (Schwarz Oct.1998; UNDP 2002). Thus, a poor person could not afford the life style a rich individual would regard as the minimum for decency and acceptable in a particular community.

However, no precise definition is really needed in Nigeria for us to understand what poverty is, as poverty is indelible on those afflicted by it. The poor are those who cannot afford decent food, medical care, recreation, decent shelter and clothe; meet family and community obligations, and other necessities of life. With this, it is not surprising that poverty is regarded as a form of oppression (UNDP Conference Report, 15-17 March 2001).

The Webster’s New Twentieth Century Dictionary depicts poverty as the condition or quality of being poor, need, indigence, and lack of means of substance. It is also deficiency in necessary properties or desirable qualities, or in a specific quality, etc. And the Journal of Poverty notes that poverty means more than being impoverished and more than lacking financial means. It is "an overall condition of inadequacy, lacking and scarcity, and destitution and deficiency of economic, political, and social resources." This is a broader perspective of poverty, which reflects its true dimensions. Therefore, people are living in poverty, ‘if their income and resources (material, cultural and social) are so inadequate as to preclude them from having a standard of living which is regarded as acceptable’ by their society generally (Ireland: NAPS, 1997). Because of the effects of her underdevelopment and corruption, the poor are found both in rural and urban settings in Nigeria, with different categories of poverty.

As mentioned earlier, the life of those afflicted by poverty is comparatively miserable and brief. Galbraith (1958) has classified modern poverty into two categories, namely: Case Poverty, and Insular Poverty.

Case Poverty is the kind of poverty seen in every community - rural and urban. It manifests in poor family with "junk-filled yard and dirty children playing in the bare dirt" (Galbraith 1958). Other qualities peculiar to the individuals or family afflicted by Case poverty are: mental deficiency, bad health, inability to adapt to the discipline of modern economic life, excessive procreation, alcohol, insufficient education, or perhaps a combination of several of these handicaps. These conditions hinder these individuals from participating in general wellbeing.

Insular Poverty manifests itself as an Island. In this imaginary island everyone or nearly everyone is poor. (Galbraith 1958) has noted that it not easy to explain insular poverty by individual inadequacy, because the environment in which the people found themselves may have made them poor or may have frustrated them.

Given the above explanations, it appropriate to note that poverty assumes social, political and economic dimensions. The social dimensions of poverty includes the lack of educational opportunity and the lack of access to health care, while the political dimensions of poverty exists where civil rights are denied and political power rests in the hands of a few people. Although economic dimensions of poverty is broader than lack of finance, it includes a lack of employment opportunities and uneven distribution of resources" (journalofpoverty.org). However, some people are poor due to factors beyond their control.

The classical Greek philosophers, especially Socrates, Plato and Aristotle believed that anything human beings could experience or think about was worth investigating. Aristotle, in particular, noted that all human beings, by nature, 'desire to know' what affects them. Therefore, poverty and squalor are among the social ills that affect human beings, which they should investigate and study.

Alfred Marshall (1842-1924), a renowned British economist, known for neo-classical theories – in his book, The Study of Poverty, observed at the turn of the 20^th century that poverty "is the study of the causes of the degradation of a large part of mankind." He noted that many people "had insufficient food, clothing, and house room. [And that] They were [and are still] over-worked and under taught, weary and careworn [and] without quiet and without leisure" (Marshall 1927).

One should remember that this study was conducted at the early 20^th century; yet with the advancement in modern technology at the end of the 20th century (and the beginning of the 21st century), many people are still poor all over the globe. Although there are traces of poverty in every nation, the situation in Africa in general and Nigeria in particular, is dismal, because the poor are struggling without assistance from the state. With the vast mineral, oil, water, land and human resources in Africa, about 240 million live on less than $1.00 (one US dollar) a day. Many people are without access to safe water and lack the ability to read or write. Consequently, Africa is often referred to as a "Paradox of poverty in the midst of plenty" (Ndulo 1999). Why is the region very poor?

The causes of poverty are myriad and complex; and they vary according to their settings. In most cases, the poverty of the Africans is caused by those elected to protect them. This is the case with Nigeria where the political leaders with access to the national treasury convert the public funds to their private use.

Insular poverty is caused by the nature of the resource endowment or the fertility of the land inhabited by the people, as it has something to do with a place of birth with limited opportunities. For instance, the "homing instinct" (the desire of a large number of people to spend their lives at or near the place of their birth), which operates mostly among the poorly educated, prevents them from leaving the 'island of poverty' in which they were born. If the groups remain in the area, they will be committed to a pattern of agricultural land use or mining, petty industrial, and unproductive, or otherwise "un-remunerative" activities. The poverty of the community also ensures that educational opportunities will be limited, and that health services will be poor. Consequently, subsequent generations will be ill prepared, either for mastering the environment into which they are born, or for migration to areas of higher income outside (Galbraith 1955). And Case poverty could be caused by illiteracy, lack of economic opportunities, indulgence in illegal drugs, alcoholism, excessive procreation, polygamous household, bad health, among others. These conditions hinder their active participation in the affairs of the their community.

Reports show that HIV/AIDS contribute to the worsening poverty situation at household level in many countries in Africa. For instance, a November 2001 Government of Nigeria sentinel survey reported that Nigeria had "5.8% HIV prevalence rate." And the United Nations ranked Nigeria as the forth-worst affected country in 1999 based on the number of HIV infections. With life expectancy of 55 years, illiteracy rate of 50%, and under-five mortality of 143 per 1, 000 live birth, HIV/AIDS affects over 2.7 million people in Nigeria (USAID, 2002). And with poor economic performance, corruption, the paltry expenditure of $0.03 per capita funding for HIV/AIDS as of 1996, and the citizen’s inability to pay for treatment once infected, the number of HIV/AIDS in Nigeria is expected to increase in future (UNAIDS 1999; see Hecht (PSR) UNAIDS 2000). For that a public awareness campaign should be intensified to educate the masses on ways to prevent the spread of the epidemic.

One cannot over-emphasize the effects of bad social policy and cultural values and attitudes "as obstacles to or facilitators of progress" of nations. Thus, cultural values, which are fundamental obstacles to progress, help to explain the intractability of the problems of poverty and injustice in parts of the Third World (Harrison 2000; Etounga-Manguelle 2000). For instance, the culture of polygamy (having more than one wife at a time) in Nigeria, Africa and some other Third World Nations is one of the major factors for poverty, corruption, illiteracy and even diseases in this part of the world (Taiwo & Kehinde Onalaja 1997). Very often, laws designed to protect the civil and human rights of the people witness zero implementation.

Therefore, Culture Matters! (Harrison & Huntington, 2000). Factors associated with mismanagement of national resources (depletion of resources by corrupt political office-holders),‘419 scam’ and rising crime rate, would discourage investment in the economy, thereby exacerbating the poverty profile of Nigeria (Daily Champion, July 5 2002). At a European Commission (EC) meeting to support Nigeria’s anti-poverty program, Nicholas Costello stated the obvious: ‘Nigeria has enough money to tackle its poverty challenges. If the government can win this battle against corruption and mismanagement, the money will start to turn into functioning schools, health services and water supply, thus laying the foundation to eradicate poverty’ (Nov/Dec 2001)

Globalization and the World Trade Organization (WTO) liberalization policy have been noted as modern day colonialism causing the poverty of the Third World countries. Some writers have suggested that Nigeria should boycott the WTO agreement, because the treaty leads to goods being dumped in the country, leading to closures of local industries. And some have argued that the quality of Nigerian goods (if Nigeria has anything other than petroleum) would not compete effectively in the global market (Vanguard, July 5, 2002; Guardian, April 2, 2002). Thus, the nation’s oil and import-dependent economy lead to rising unemployment and the poverty of the people.

Discrimination, race and poverty are closely related; they affect peoples’ ability to secure employment and earn a living. Entrenched tribal prejudices and nepotism sometimes determines a person’s chance to secure employment in Nigeria. The de facto ‘state of the origin’ prerequisite for securing employment in the state and local government areas in Nigeria is a case in point. Often, those who relocate to states other than their ‘states of origin’ are being treated as non-indigenes. Consequently, those in places of authority hire their own people. This practice is not, however, peculiar to Nigeria. In the United States race is a factor in employment. "Nonwhites are often prevented from reaching certain occupational or managerial levels" irrespective of their qualification (Mansfield 1977). There are laws against such practices in the United States; any person can relocate to any state of his or her choice, secure employment, and participate in the affairs of the community.

Inept leadership, bad social policies and reliant on traditional methods of productions are impediments to prosperity. Other causes of poverty include government institutions that that are corrupt, unproductive university-private sector relationships and failure to take risk and make tough choices. Many nations that are not creating wealth at a high rate are over-reliant on natural resources, including cheap labor; and they believe in the simple advantages of climate, location, and government favor (Sachs and Warner, Dec.1995). One would not fail to mention the unhealthy state of Nigeria’s educational institutions and hospitals, lack of economic opportunities for the citizens, and lack of skills in computers and information technology for mass production are among the causes of the nation’s low productivity and the poverty of the society.

President Olusegun Obasanjo could make interesting national headlines and history if he would restructure the economy, fight corruption, fix the debilitating infrastructures (maintenance and repair of roads, etc; (State Governors and Local Government Chairmen are equally guilty of neglect of State and Community/Local roads in their care). And special attention should be given to education in the society, as education is the engine that propels the economy of any nation. That is the only way the nation can attract foreign and local investors to Nigeria, instead of his futile attempts flying around the globe to attract businesses to the corruption-infested Nigeria.

The Minister for Education must keep an eagle's eye on those implementing educational policies to ensure that corruption and political rhetoric do not cloud reality. School administrators have to be certain that only qualified candidates gain entry into the nation’s higher institutions. This writer noted with dismay, during his recent visit to Nigeria that individuals in which under normal conditions, would not be admitted into tertiary institutions, are now university students. This is because any person whose parents/guardians could afford the cost would buy their way in (with the assistance of some unscrupulous school officials). And those with many deficiencies are allowed some time to produce the required entry credentials, failure of which the student would be expelled. This is apparently one of the main causes of the recent spate of dismissal of students from the nation’s higher institutions. Worse still, prospective students who did not participate in JAMB examination could secure good JAMB scores with the right amount and appropriate connection at the JAMB office. If this trend is allowed to continue only God knows what will become of the already terrible products of Nigeria’s tertiary institutions in future.

However, any individual from a poverty-ridden society is, undoubtedly, familiar with the effects of poverty on the poor and society in general.

Perhaps, due to its complexity and its corrosive effects on humanity, many journal articles and books have tackled the issues of poverty (Schiller June 6, 2000; Sen 1999; Harrison and Huntington, 2000). Poverty destroys aspirations, hope, and happiness. In Nigeria, as in other poverty-stricken nations, this is the poverty one can feel. Poverty affects tolerance of others, support of civil liberties and openness toward foreigners; it affects positive relationships with subordinates, self-esteem and sense of personal competence; it also affects ones disposition to participate in community affairs, interpersonal trust and self-satisfaction (Inglehart 1997; Fairbanks 2000, p. 271).

It has been noted that deprivation of elementary capabilities can be reflected on premature mortality, significant undernourishment (especially on children), persistent morbidity and illiteracy, among other problems. Life expectancy, literacy are correlated with the productivity and prosperity of a nation (Fairbanks 2000, p.271). As it relates to Nigeria and other poverty-ridden African and Asian societies, high level poverty could lead to brain drain -the emigration of many of the most highly educated workers to rich countries, where these workers can enjoy a higher standard of living (Mankiw 2001). The poverty of a nation can also lead to human trafficking, prostitution and the spread of HIV/AIDS, child labor and abuse of human and civil rights (Guardian Online, June 24, 2002). In addition, poverty leads to corruption, disruption of family relations and social life, causes rising crime rate, among other vices.

Amartya Sen, In Development as Freedom, argues persuasively that an individual’s advantage (or otherwise) in a society should not be judged solely on his or her income. Poverty must also be measured in "terms of substantive freedoms he or she enjoys to lead the kind of life he or she has reason to value." Therefore, poverty a deprivation of basic capabilities (such as undernourishment and illiteracy), rather than merely as lowness of income, which is the standard criterion of identification of poverty." He adds that the "capability-poverty" perspective "does not involve any denial" of the fact that low income is clearly one of the major causes of poverty, since lack of income can be a principal reason for a person’s capability deprivation (1999, p.87). He notes that poverty, as "capability inadequacy" and "lowness of income" are related, because "income is such an important means to capabilities." And since "enhanced capabilities" would tend to expand a person’s ability to be more productive and earn a higher income," it is also normal for people to "expect a connection going from capability improvement to greater earning power" (Ibid. p.90).

As noted earlier, the role of productivity in determining living standards is important for nations as it is for individuals. A nation can enjoy a higher standard of living if it can produce a large quantity of goods and services needed by the people. The productivity of a society is determined by many factors, which include physical capital, human capital, natural resources, and technological knowledge (Mankiw 2001, pp.533-535). With the havoc caused by bad leadership and corruption, good leadership is among the determinants of a nation’s productivity. These factors complement each other. A country will remain poor, in spite of her resources, if her leaders cannot organize the resources at their disposal for efficient and effective productive purposes. Unfortunately, this is one of the most deep-rooted impediments to higher productivity in Nigeria and the deteriorating poverty profile of the nation.

Given the foreground, poverty is degrading to human beings; and the life of the person afflicted by it is comparatively miserable and brief. Thus, grave threat to the future stability of Nigeria lie in the masses beset by absolute poverty. Consequently, poverty, destitution, indigence and scarcity are words that show images of economic disadvantage and lack of financial resources.

A World Bank study of Nigeria shows that there are differences between regions in the concentration of the poor and non-poor in the society. This, according to the study, varies from the north to the south, with more concentration of the poor in the northern agro-climatic zone (The World Bank, August 1996). But generally people of low-incomes live in the rural agriculture and with them eking out income from barren lands and by raising animals. All the previous poverty alleviation programs in the society have not improved the poverty profile of this group, because they were not religiously been implemented.

The problem with Nigeria is lack of consistency and non-implementation of government policies to the letter. Different administrations in Nigeria have adopted their own poverty alleviation program, instead of continuing with, and improving on the previous poverty programs. The first known poverty program in Nigeria was the National Accelerated Food Production Programme and the Nigerian Agricultural and Co-operative Bank set up by General Yakubu Gowon in 1972. Nothing was shown for the huge sum sunk into the program; it only served as a conduit to transfer money to his cronies.

In 1976 General Olusegun Obasanjo came in with his Operation Feed the Nation. The program delegated university students to the rural areas to teach the rural farmers how to use modern farming tools that were not available.

The civilian administration of Alhaji Shehu Shagari toyed with the Green Revolution Programme of 1979. The objectives of the program were to reduce food importation while boosting local food production. In theory, the program was a noble one, but like others before it, had nothing to show after gulping billions of Naira. The program ended when General M. Buhari chased Shagari out of office in 1983. After that General Buhari introduced the Go Back to Land Programme. But this program was as bad as the previous ones.

When the almighty General Babangida took over power with his horde of rogues in 1986, he established the Directorate of Food, Roads and rural Infrastructure (DFRRI). The Peoples Bank of Nigeria and the Community Bank of Nigeria (which were parts of the program) were setup to give out small loans to the rural poor. Even his wife came up with her own poverty reduction program, Better Life Programme, to improve the lives of rural women. But the program ended up making richer the well-connected and powerful women entrusted with the administration of the program.

General Sani Abacha who wrestled power from the interim administration of Chief Shonekan in 1993 set up the Family Support Programme and the Family Economic Advancement Programme. After spending several billions of Naira to reduce poverty, poverty instead blossomed, because Abacha took delight in dismissing civil servants with impunity.

When Chief Olusegun Obasanjo came back to power in May 29, 1999, he promised to improve the lots of the masses. He has, however, transformed himself into a ‘roving ambassador’ without an idea on how to tackle the deteriorating poverty profile of Nigeria. It has been reported that more than N10 billion (ten billion Naira) has already gone into the poverty alleviation programs of his administration (in fiscal year 2000), but Nigeria is still the 26^th poorest country in the world. Given the resources at her disposal, Nigeria should not have such a dismal poverty profile. But the corrupt political leaders are only chasing the shadow of money, with the people wallowing in abject poverty in the face of plenty. Can the leaders ever find any remedies to the poverty problem in Nigeria?

There is no ‘quick-fix’ to reducing poverty in any society. If not, the streets of the United States could have been free of beggars. This is not to say that poverty should be tolerated. As Alfred Marshall observed, 'there is no moral justification for extreme poverty side by side with great wealth.’ And James Madison was credited to have said that ‘the happiest and most secure society was that in which most citizens are independent. No republic could remain untroubled, he believed, if large numbers of citizens were economically marginalized’ (Schwarz, October 1998).

This is really true, but many people are poor in the oil rich Nigeria. And this generated a lot of social conflicts lately, but the leaders are not troubled. As one writer notes, "It is not solely the lack of resources that generates conflicts [and social instability in a polity, but corruption and lack of fairness in the distribution of resources]. Thus, groups in the deprived areas of the world must never be forgotten and underestimated, because "what generates bitterness, tension and conflicts is the brazen denial of distributive justice, equity and more importantly the process, which allows this denial." This condition is particularly volatile when it is accompanied, as it is often the case in Nigeria, by blatant display of conspicuous consumption by a privileged few overwhelming in control over the reign of power (Amoo, January 1997). To improve the poverty-profile of the nation her "political economy must be characterized by transparency, accountability, and distributive justice" (Ibid. 1997)

The lack of distributive justice was the main cause of the recent uprising in the Niger-Delta area of Nigeria where a group of women seized some oil installations demanding that the oil companies making billions of dollars from the land should employ the youths from the community. They threatened to use their nudity as weapon should they be attacked. Lack of fairness, equitable distribution of resources, transparency and accountability in governance, as well as lack of minority-rights protection would bring about social and political instability, frightening off local and foreign investors. Toward this end Fairbanks (2000) notes that to create prosperity in any nation and alleviate poverty, the state should create "a stable macroeconomic environment" that will enable the "private sector entrepreneurs to create growth."

For this conscious efforts should be made by the leadership to restructure the polity and diversify the economy so as to avoid the continuous reliance on a mono-cultural oil economy, whose price is subject to the vagaries of world politics. The government can also reduce the poverty of the people by controlling corruption, paying the workers living wages and when due (Vanguard, March 28, 2002; and Guardian, April 29, 2002). It is appalling that Nigerians are poor in the midst of plenty!

This is not a blueprint to poverty eradication in Nigeria. But since one of the reasons a nation is poor is lack of or low productivity (see the causes of poverty above), the simple logic then would be for the leaders of Nigeria to device ways and means to motivate their citizens for higher productivity. Perhaps, Nigeria has the worst reward system in the world; and this has affected the morale of the workers and their productivity (this includes teachers, civil servants, blue-collar workers, etc). We can venture to say that the economic problem of Nigeria is largely a productivity issue.

As noted earlier, some of the previous alleviation programs were involved in small loan disbursement to the rural poor. But these programs did not increase their productivity or improve the poverty profile of the nation, largely because they did not give them the needed education and skills to manage their lives and to remove the specific frustrations of the environment to which they are subjected.

Modern poverty will not be eradicated by giving out small loan to the poor. This method cannot solve Case poverty, because the ‘specific individual inadequacy’ that precludes them from participation in the loan program has not been eliminated. Because of the self or environment factors, the targeted groups could not be reached by those administering the programs. It is not surprising that some of the banks involved in the program are not even located in poor and rural communities where the majority of the group lives. The true remedy of poverty in Nigeria should begin with providing education and skill training to the needy and assist them to secure employment, either in their localities or elsewhere. Those entrapped in the ‘homing instinct’, which crowd them into areas of inadequate opportunity and frustration, should be educated to work against that. In addition, the spread or location of industries in these communities will have remedial effect on the poor.

A society can alleviate poverty by guaranteeing a minimum income to the poor and the unemployed for decency and comfort (like the welfare, pension and unemployment programs in the United States, etc). Good health-care program is an important variable in poverty alleviation, because a sick person is usually an unproductive worker. And pension programs should be well implemented, as the retired are known to constitute a bulk of the poor in many societies. Corruption and bureaucratic bottleneck are known to have destroyed the pension programs in the society.

We are not concerned here with argument about the disincentives of unemployment insurance. However, any assistance to the unemployed should cease as soon as one gets a job. Securing this minimum standard would help ensure that the misfortunes of parents deserved or otherwise are not visited on their children; and it ensures that poverty would not be self-perpetuating. Any fairly rich, rational, and compassionate society could afford this prescription. In a rich but cruel Nigeria, any person without a job would starve, even if he or she has physical and mental disabilities. The remedy for poverty is a bit difficult to procure for those inflicted with alcohol and mental incompetence. However, a combination of medical treatment and individual therapy would go a long way to alleviating their problems.

The UNDP has prescribed some poverty alleviation strategies, which this author would like to recommend to nations. The strategies include the adoption of a long-term process and to have a broad understanding of what poverty is; to adopt an inclusive process with women and minorities, and to utilize local expertise and to have a better coordination within governments. Others are training and education of the public (within and outside formal educational establishments) in poverty issues, and to make sure the strategies are [well] funded (UNDP, 15-17 March 2001).

Poverty could also be remedied by ensuring that investment in the children from families presently afflicted with poverty is increased. As Galbraith 1956 & 1958 notes, if the children of poor families have access to first-rate schools; and if school attendance is properly enforced. If the children (though, poorly fed at home), are well nourished at school. If the community has good health services and the physical well being of the children is vigilantly watched. If there is opportunity for advanced education for those who qualify regardless of means; and if law and order are well enforced and recreation is adequate. Then there is a very good chance that the children of the very poor will come to maturity without grave disadvantage.

Since the sick cannot and the unemployed poor are productive citizens, increasing their productivity in any way would add to the total output of goods and services, translating into poverty alleviation of a nation. Given the decades of neglect of Nigeria’s educational institutions, is there any wonder why poverty is self-perpetuating in the society? Nigeria can turn things around by adopting ‘pro-poor distribution’ and ‘pro-poor growth’ policy actions by investing more in rural areas (Moore 1999; IDS Working Paper 1999).

Slum clearance, establishment and expansion of low and middle-income housing in rural areas, provision of non-interruptible electricity for cottage industries and good health care for the poor will be helpful in reducing poverty. Good roads will attract investment to neglected rural areas and improve distribution of goods and services. Controlling corruption and waste in government could assist in poverty reduction.

Amartya Sen (1999) has addressed the poverty issue through a different route. He notes in Development as Freedom "that the reduction of income poverty alone cannot possibly be the ultimate motivation of antipoverty policy", but in the expansion of "freedoms" and "enhancement of human capabilities." This includes expansion of social opportunities, economic facilities, political freedoms, transparency, and protective security. In addition, he notes that "Freedoms are not only the primary ends of development, they are also among its principal means" (1999, p.10). These would advance the general capability of a person.

The adoption of people-oriented and pro-poor social policies, investment in rural areas and in agriculture, increase investment in information technology and health care, provision of non-interruptible electricity for cottage industries, good roads for distribution of goods and services, investment in human capital and skills training (and retraining) for jobs that are available, are ways to assist in poverty alleviation. The leaders of Nigeria should develop a compelling vision that would create a sense of purpose in the citizenry, teach our children the values of hard work, creativity and pride in their country, and encourage and reward honesty. This will enable individuals to change their behaviors and actions that are inimical to the nation’s prosperity. Finally, no poverty alleviation program in any society would be successful without controlling corruption and government waste, showing transparency, accountability, and effective leadership. These, without a doubt, are among the myriad of issues facing Nigeria today.

Costello, Nicholas; "Supporting Nigeria’s Anti-poverty Programmes." Address to the EC’s November-December 2001 meeting in support of Nigeria’s anti-poverty programs. Nicholas Costello was the Nigeria Desk Officer in Brussels from 1998-2001 (Nov-Dec 2001, the Courier ACP-EU).

Dike, Victor E; "Poverty in Nigeria." The Daily Independent (Opinion Column), October 6, 2002.

Etounga-Manguelle, Daniel; "Does Africa Need a Cultural Adjustment Program?" in Culture Matters Lawrence E. Harrison and Samuel P. Huntington, editors, (New York: Basic Books), 2000

Ezema, Malachy; "World Bank, IMF and Nigeria Poverty reduction Strategy," The Guardian Online, July 10, 2002

Fairbanks, Michael; "Changing the Mind of a Nation: Elements in a Process for Creating Prosperity," in Culture Matters, Lawrence E. Harrison and Samuel P. Huntington, editors, (New York: Basic Books), 2000, pp.270-281

Farukanmi, Olorunnimbe; "Nigeria’s wage burden: An albatross;" Vanguard Online, March 28, 2002.

Harrison, Lawrence, "Why Culture Matters," in Culture Matters, Lawrence E. Harrison and Samuel P. Huntington, editors, (New York: Basic Books), 2000

Hecht, Robert, "Poverty, Debt and AIDS- Mainstreaming the Epidemic and Mobilizing Additional Resources for the Response." UNAIDS Inter-Country Team for West and Central Africa

Igbudu, Joe; "Whiter Nigeria," The Vanguard, July 5, 2002

Ige, Segun; "Nigeria’s poverty, our collective shame," The Guardian Online, March 25, 2002

Inglehart, Ronald; Modernization and Post modernization: Cultural, Economic, and Political Change in forty-three Societies (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1997 (see Ch.1 in particular).

Ireland: The National Anti-Poverty Strategy (NAPS) report, "Sharing in Progress" (1997); also see the 1997 Living in Ireland Survey.

Lindsay, Stace; "Culture, Mental Models, and National Prosperity," in Culture Matters, Lawrence E. Harrison and Samuel P. Huntington, editors, (New York: Basic Books), 2000, pp. 282-295

Mankiw, N. Gregory; Principles of Economics (2^nd edition). Fort Worth: Harcourt College Pub, 2001),

pp. 530-552

Moore, Mick; Jennifer Leavy; Peter Houtzager & Howard White; "Polity Qualities: How Governance Affects Poverty;" IDS Working Paper 1999. This paper is a new version of "Responsiveness of Political Systems on Poverty Reduction;" presented at a meeting held at Castle Donnington, UK on 16-17 August 1999, by Governance Department for the UK Department for International Development.

Ndulo, Muna; "Democracy, Institution Building, and Poverty in Africa." Inclusion, Justice, and Poverty Reduction - Villa Borsig Workshop Series (DSE), 1999

Omeziri, Canice O.; "A solution to 419 in Nigeria." Daily Champion, July 5, 2002

Ray, Debraj, Development Economics (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press), 1998, p.9

Sachs, Jeffrey and Andrew Warner; "Natural Resources Abundance and Economic Growth," National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, Working Paper 5398, December 1995

Schiller, Bradley R.; The Economics of Poverty and Discrimination (8^th edition). Prentice Hall College Div., June 6, 2000

Schwarz, John E.; "The Hidden Side of the Clinton Economy;" The Atlantic Monthly, October 1998

Sen, Amartya, "The Concept of Wealth," in The Wealth of Nations in the Twentieth Century: The Policies and Institutional Determinants of Economic Development; Ramon Myers (editor), (Stanford: Hover Institute Press) 1996.

Sen, Amartya; Development as Freedom (New York: Anchor Books, 1999), pp. 87-110

Taiwo, Onalaja and Kehinde Onalaja; How Polygamy Wrecks Nigeria; CAPWONA Books, UK, 1997

The Commonwealth Yearbook (2002)

The Guardian Online; "Nigerians Among The Poorest People In Commonwealth," March 17, 2002

The Guardian Online; "The horror of human trafficking," June 24, 2002)

The Guardian Online; "Nigeria and the IMF," April 29, 2002

The Guardian Online; "Again, Nigeria and the WTO," April 2, 2002

The Guardian Online; "UNDP report ranks Nigeria 26^th poorest country," July 26, 2002

The United Nations Development Programme: Conference Report on "Poverty Reduction Strategies: What have we learned?" Bergen, Norway 15-17 March 2001

The Vanguard Online; "Formula for Taming domestic conflicts and insecurity," June 25, 2002

TheWashington Times; "Giving Credit where credit is due. People’s Bank of Nigeria reaches out to empower the poor" Advertising Department, September 30, 1999

The World Bank Group: "Nigeria: Targeting communities for effective poverty alleviation." Findings: African Region, No 68, August 1996

The United Nations AIDS Program (UNAIDS) 1999

Webster’s New Twentieth Century Dictionary: see definitions of poverty.